> ## Documentation Index > Fetch the complete documentation index at: https://docs.peaka.com/llms.txt > Use this file to discover all available pages before exploring further. # Binary functions and operators ## Binary operators The `||` operator performs concatenation. ## Binary functions ### concat ``` concat(binary1, ..., binaryN) -> varbinary ``` Returns the concatenation of `binary1`, `binary2`, `...`, `binaryN`. This function provides the same functionality as the SQL-standard concatenation operator (`||`). ### length ``` length(binary) -> bigint ``` Returns the length of `binary` in bytes. ### lpad ``` lpad(binary, size, padbinary) -> varbinary ``` Left pads `binary` to `size` bytes with `padbinary`. If `size` is less than the length of `binary`, the result is truncated to `size` characters. `size` must not be negative and `padbinary` must be non-empty. ### rpad ``` rpad(binary, size, padbinary) -> varbinary ``` Right pads `binary` to `size` bytes with `padbinary`. If `size` is less than the length of `binary`, the result is truncated to `size` characters. `size` must not be negative and `padbinary` must be non-empty. ### substr ``` substr(binary, start) -> varbinary ``` Returns the rest of `binary` from the starting position `start`, measured in bytes. Positions start with `1`. A negative starting position is interpreted as being relative to the end of the string. ``` substr(binary, start, length) -> varbinary ``` Returns a substring from `binary` of length `length` from the starting position `start`, measured in bytes. Positions start with `1`. A negative starting position is interpreted as being relative to the end of the string. ### reverse ``` reverse(binary) -> varbinary ``` Returns `binary` with the bytes in reverse order. ## Base64 encoding functions The Base64 functions implement the encoding specified in RFC 4648. ### from\_base64 ``` from_base64(string) -> varbinary ``` Decodes binary data from the base64 encoded `string`. ### to\_base64 ``` to_base64(binary) -> varchar ``` Encodes `binary` into a base64 string representation. ### from\_base64url ``` from_base64url(string) -> varbinary ``` Decodes binary data from the base64 encoded `string` using the URL safe alphabet. ### to\_base64url ``` to_base64url(binary) -> varchar ``` Encodes `binary` into a base64 string representation using the URL safe alphabet. ### from\_base32 ``` from_base32(string) -> varbinary ``` Decodes binary data from the base32 encoded `string`. ### to\_base32 ``` to_base32(binary) -> varchar ``` Encodes `binary` into a base32 string representation. ## Hex encoding functions ### from\_hex ``` from_hex(string) -> varbinary ``` Decodes binary data from the hex encoded `string`. ### to\_hex ``` to_hex(binary) -> varchar ``` Encodes `binary` into a hex string representation. ## Integer encoding functions ### from\_big\_endian\_32 ``` from_big_endian_32(binary) -> integer ``` Decodes the 32-bit two's complement big-endian `binary`. The input must be exactly 4 bytes. ### to\_big\_endian\_32 ``` to_big_endian_32(integer) -> varbinary ``` Encodes `integer` into a 32-bit two's complement big-endian format. ### from\_big\_endian\_64 ``` from_big_endian_64(binary) -> bigint ``` Decodes the 64-bit two's complement big-endian `binary`. The input must be exactly 8 bytes. ### to\_big\_endian\_64 ``` to_big_endian_64(bigint) -> varbinary ``` Encodes `bigint` into a 64-bit two's complement big-endian format. ## Floating-point encoding functions ### from\_ieee754\_32 ``` from_ieee754_32(binary) -> real ``` Decodes the 32-bit big-endian `binary` in IEEE 754 single-precision floating-point format. The input must be exactly 4 bytes. ### to\_ieee754\_32 ``` to_ieee754_32(real) -> varbinary ``` Encodes `real` into a 32-bit big-endian binary according to IEEE 754 single-precision floating-point format. ### from\_ieee754\_64 ``` from_ieee754_64(binary) -> double ``` Decodes the 64-bit big-endian `binary` in IEEE 754 double-precision floating-point format. The input must be exactly 8 bytes. ### to\_ieee754\_64 ``` to_ieee754_64(double) -> varbinary ``` Encodes `double` into a 64-bit big-endian binary according to IEEE 754 double-precision floating-point format. ## Hashing functions ### crc32 ``` crc32(binary) -> bigint ``` Computes the CRC-32 of `binary`. For general purpose hashing, use `xxhash64`, as it is much faster and produces a better quality hash. ### md5 ``` md5(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the MD5 hash of `binary`. ### sha1 ``` sha1(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the SHA1 hash of `binary`. ### sha256 ``` sha256(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the SHA256 hash of `binary`. ### sha512 ``` sha512(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the SHA512 hash of `binary`. ### spooky\_hash\_v2\_32 ``` spooky_hash_v2_32(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the 32-bit SpookyHashV2 hash of `binary`. ### spooky\_hash\_v2\_64 ``` spooky_hash_v2_64(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the 64-bit SpookyHashV2 hash of `binary`. ### xxhash64 ``` xxhash64(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the xxHash64 hash of `binary`. ### murmur3 ``` murmur3(binary) -> varbinary ``` Computes the 128-bit [MurmurHash3](https://wikipedia.org/wiki/MurmurHash) hash of `binary`. ```sql theme={null} > SELECT murmur3(from_base64('aaaaaa')); > -- ba 58 55 63 55 69 b4 2f 49 20 37 2c a0 e3 96 ef ``` ## HMAC functions ### hmac\_md5 ``` hmac_md5(binary, key) -> varbinary ``` Computes HMAC with MD5 of `binary` with the given `key`. ### hmac\_sha1 ``` hmac_sha1(binary, key) -> varbinary ``` Computes HMAC with SHA1 of `binary` with the given `key`. ### hmac\_sha256 ``` hmac_sha256(binary, key) -> varbinary ``` Computes HMAC with SHA256 of `binary` with the given `key`. ### hmac\_sha512 ``` hmac_sha512(binary, key) -> varbinary ``` Computes HMAC with SHA512 of `binary` with the given `key`.